A new Simon Fraser University study has found men in ancient Europe likely had better access to protein-rich foods than women did.

Analyzing samples from more than 12,000 skeletons from hundreds of sites across Europe over a 10,000-year period, researchers say the findings are strong evidence of long-suspected gender-based diet inequalities throughout history.

“We think these differences were largely culturally motivated,” says Michael Richards, archaeology professor and senior author of the study.

“In earlier periods, animal protein was energetically ‘expensive’ to obtain, and in later periods it often carried higher monetary costs. As a result, it likely became a higher-status food and was preferentially consumed by males.”

Published in PNAS Nexus, the study analyzed isotopes found in 12,281 individuals across 393 sites in Europe dating as far back as10,000 years. Isotopes are chemical markers in human remains that allow researchers to reconstruct past diets.

Nitrogen isotopes reflect the amount of animal protein consumed while carbon isotopes indicate how much plant-based foods, like grains, were ingested.

To compare inequality across different regions and time periods, researchers applied a method from economics known as the interdecile ratio. This approach provides a standardized way to measure how diets differed within populations.