Archaeological sites

03 04 '26 10:23

The Nekromanteion of Acheron

Epirus

Konstantina Zidrou (Archaeologist)

The tour
Historical background

Entrance to the archaeological site

The gate today, at the middle of the northern site of
the western compound, is on the same side where the
ancient entrance was. The visitor enters directly the
square yard, around which the various subsidiary areas
are formed.

Semi-basement room

East to the entrance door and on the left, visitors see a square semi-basement room, about two metres lower than the floor of the adjacent northern hallway of the main sanctuary, carved into the rock. The parts of it above ground were built with fired bricks. Two pillars, from which only the pedestals are preserved, probably bore wooden struts which helped protect the roof from humidity. The location of the room along with the nature of various findings indicate that it was probably used as a storeroom and deposit of the sanctuary debris.
Mobile findings include animal bones, sea shells, river pebbles, charcoals, loom weights—one of which encarved with the figure of goddess Athena—as well as numerous shreds from various vases.

A series of rooms west to the entrance of the sanctuary

West to the entrance of the compound and on their right, the visitors see a relatively large square room, almost parallel to the one described above, dated, based on its wall structure, to the Hellenistic Period.
From the mobile findings what stands out is a bronze Ambracian coin dating to 234-168 BC. On the obverse, there is a figure of Apollo bearing a wreath and Baetylus, while on the reverse the letters A-M-B-P are discernible. To the south of this room, three consecutive rooms have been brought to light, with a superstructure from quarry stones, which were dated to the Roman Period, the 1st century BC in particular, a period when the sanctuary was reinhabited.

Hellenistic rooms on the SW corner of the western complex

On the SW corner of the western complex, three rooms from the Hellenistic Period have been found. The orthernmost room which is of rectangular shape and is also the largest, is divided with a vertical wall into two smaller areas. To the south of this are two more rooms, similar in dimensions and construction. All are preserved at foundation level. On the western side of the northern room and on the outer precinct, two drainage pipes have been dug out. On the northern side, the foundations of solid walls were found, where there was probably a staircase. Therefore, based on the above findings, their location and construction, the room at the north would operate as an entrance hall to the two others, which, in turn, would operate as dormitories for the pilgrims while they were being prepared and in view of their entrance to the main sanctuary.

Hellenistic rooms on the SE corner of the western complex

On the southeast corner of the western complex, the remains of four more rooms have been found, used as the ones mentioned above. But since they were built dowhill, today they have been swept off. Only their foundations remain with the distinctive solid thick walls, which were also probably the retaining walls of the sanctuary as a whole.
The entire western building complex has yielded findings dating both to the Prehistoric as well as the Hellenistic Period (late 3rd-late 2nd c. BC).
In particular, from the Prehistoric Period the following findings have been uncovered: three cist graves, the remains of a dry stone wall, and various mobile findings, mainly shreds of vases
in the local prehistoric handcraft ceramic style, blades, arrowheads, ceramic and steatite whorls and quartz tools. Among the findings from the Hellenistic Period there are loom weights, animal bones, sea shells, shreds of pithoi and pointed amphorae, ceramic small trays, numerous shreds from various vases, lamps and tiles with imprints and pyxides with the inscription IRCULO from the period the site was rehabited.

Northern hallway of the main sanctuary

Initially, visitors head towards the northern hallway, which is divided into two parts: the western or northern pre-hallway and the main northern hallway. The first division is mostly part of the western complex, measuring twice as much as the main northern hallway; its aim was to prepare the entrance to the main northern hallway. In the second division, which is as long as the northern side of the sanctuary and equally wide to the eastern hallway, the thresholds of three gates are visible: the western gate, from where pilgrims would enter, the middle gate, where traces of the arched iron-barred gate are preserved, and the eastern gate, which led to the corresponding eastern hallway.
There aren’t many mobile findings but the existing ones are distinctive in their use and were unearthed on both sides of the eastern gate. Those are iron rivets, which were fixed initially on the arch iron gate. On the left of the same gate, a large clay cauldron, which was considered a louterion, has been undearthed. In it, the pilgrims would wash their hands before exiting the hallway, in an act of cleansing. Along the cauldron, a stone pile was found, comprising of stones the pilgrims would throw behind them when entering the eastern hallway, as was mandated by a primordial belief regarding stone-throwing and thus exorcizing evil and death.

Rooms of the northern hallway

On the external part of the northern hallway, three rooms were unearthed, made with fired bricks and on a higher level with mud bricks. The two corner rooms had doors and direct access to the northern hallway, while the middle one had access through an internal door to the corresponding one on the right and not directly to the hallway. Archaeologists also found a third room, the location of which, as well as its construction and an L shaped brick construction inside it, led to the assumption that only the two first rooms functioned as dormitories for pilgrims and as a space for their preparations, while the third one was a bathroom.
Mobile findings are highly varied and prove particularly enlightening as to the procedure of preparation of pilgrims. In particular, in the two dormitories, archaeologists found food residues, remains of a hearth full of ash from a fire to warm
and prepare the food, loom weights, circular bases which would support the pointed amphorae, mainly filled with oil or wine, or torches to light the space, millstones to grind the food, copper coins from the period of the Epirote Republic (232-167 BC), three relief clay masks depicting an underworld deity, many sheep knuckle-bones as well as a variety of vases such as pithoi, amphorae, pointed amphorae, hydriae, jars, bowls—sometimes decorated with images—, lekythoi, jugs, basins, flasks, kantharoi, lacrymentaria, pyxides with decorated lids, a rhyton in the shape of a resting ram and many lamps.

Eastern hallway of the main sanctuary

Turning right, pilgrims would enter the eastern hallway. Its most impressive feature are the extremely thick walls, which are in fact preserved to their initial height and are constructed in the same masonry technique and with the same care as the walls of the sanctuary. Initially, it was assumed that there had been internal dark winding hallways within the walls, that were perhaps used by the priests or for various rituals. This assumption, however, was never confirmed by excavations, so S. Dakaris concluded that the thickness of the walls was due to clearly practical reasons, namely to better support the heavy hipped roof of the sanctuary and the corresponding gable roof of the hallway.
The mobilie findings include the residues of five burnt sacrifices, performed within small cavities, namely ash, coal and burnt animal bones, mainly sheep and oxen; also two bases for large pithoi were found, as well as a stone basin and a pair of millstones. Throughout the floor there were scattered sea shells, associated with funeral banquets, as well as river pebbles which were used for oracles.

Room of the eastern hallway

At the northern part of the eastern hallway, one more room was investigated, which is the natural continuation of the three adjacent rooms of the northern hallway, as they have the same dimensions and construction. However, its eastern side is not preserved, having collapsed due to the declination of the ground. This room too had a door to communicate with the eastern hallway and it functioned as a dormitory just before pilgrims entered the eastern hallway. Mobile findings include pithoi, vases, mainly amphorae, and food residues.

External eastern hallway of the main sanctuary

Along the eastern hallway, one more hallway was found, the external eastern one, of the same dimensions but having largly collapsed due to the declination of the ground. Thus evidence of
its existence is only found in sparse parts of its foundation. The two hallways would communicate through a single door, placed in the middle of the eastern side of the eastern hallway. Unfortunately, from the external eastern hallway and the corresponding room no mobile findings have been unearthed, as the floor has been swept off.

Room of the external eastern hallway

In the northern part of the outside external hallway too excavations have yielded traces of foundations, probably of one more room of the same dimensions and construction as the previous ones. This room had two doors: one in the middle of the southern side, to communicate with the hallway, and one on the northern side, from where the pilgrims would leave the sanctuary after having communicated with the spectrums of the dead.

Southern hallway of the main sanctuary or Labyrinth

This hallway is shorter and not as wide as the northern and eastern ones, but its walls are equally thick and constructed with care. In addition, it is winding in a meander, hence it is known as
the Labyrinth. This structuring evokes the sense of wandering in the dark hallways of Hades. The Labyrinth had three arched iron doors, which symobolized the doors to the Underworld. The first was the entrance, the second was near the middle and the third led directly to the Room of the Spectrums.
Among mobile findings from this area there are iron rivets from the iron gates, a clay lamp and various shreds from basins, which were broken by the pilgrims after having made their offerings to the gods of the Underworld.

Main sanctuary

This is a rectangular tower-like structure, with an entrance on the southern side, located in the southewest corner of the eastern compound. Its external walls, built in a polygonal masonry, are impressively thick, measuring even 3.30 at points; the preserved height is also impressive, reaching 3.30m. From 3.30 metres and above, they were constructed with fired or mud bricks, clay as a connecting material and timber-frame. The entire building was covered by a hipped roof, covered in tiles of Corinthian style. Of course, its upper part is not preserved, but it can be concluded from the findings of excavations.
On the interior, two parallel walls, similarly constructed as the external ones but thinner, at most a metre thick, divide the building into three equally wide rectangular rooms. In the middle, there is a single room. The ones on the corners, though, bear two additional vertical walls each, which create correspondingly three equal in size rectangular rooms, with a side of 4.40 metres. These additional rooms have doors that provide access from one to the other as well as the central room. Studies of the upper part of the building, the fact that the remains of a staircase have been found on the northeastern corner of the central room, systematic research on the laid poros slabs on the floor as well as the discovery of items in various levels all led to the assumption that there had been a second floor. Therefore, as is suggested by excavation evidence, in the big fire that caused the complete destruction of the sanctuary in 167 BC, first the roof collapsed, then the upper part of the building and the first floor and, right after that, parts of the ground floor walls followed.
The most distinctive and representative mobile findings come from the central room of the main sanctuary or Room of the Spectrums. In particular, in this space, stones of smaller dimensions have been discovered, as well as various shreds of basins and food residues, associated with the rituals in the Nekromanteion and the offerings of the worshipers, numerous shreds from various vases, bottoms of lead vases, rectangular millstones, a clay and a bronze cauldron with hammered metal sheets and cast handles, various tools, numerous bricks and clay from the upper part of the building that had collapsed.
A special set of findings comprises 14 cast bronze wheels of various sizes, divided in 7 pairs, as well as 4 ratchets. The wheels were parts of capstans, while the ratchets prevented them from retrogressing. In fact, on the ones that were cleaned the letter E or M or Π is carved, indicating their position on the machine. In the same area, but at a different level, various fragmented iron sheets were found, probably from large spoked wheels. These items, along with the discovery of one more set of bronze wheels in the eastern area, as well as a variety of carpentry and stone processing tools, probably comprised the components of a machine, which was used to lift weights while the building was constructed.
The above findings were located in the central area of the Nekromanteion, where the spectrums of the dead would appear. Therefore due to their location, archaeologist S. Dakaris thought that the iron and bronze items were part of a lifting apparatus, used not to lift weights but to make the spectrums of the dead appear before the pilgrims. Namely it was a type of crane, very much like the ones found in the theatre in form and construction, used to make the deus ex machina appear. This apparatus would have the spectrum of the dead on the one side and a counterweight on the other for balance. Twenty two iron bricks, found in the northern room of the eastern hallway, in a variety of measurements and weighing from 6.5 to 10.5 kg, supported the above assumption, as they were identified as the counterweights of the crane.
In the eastern area, within artificial cavities, 18 large pithoi were investigated in situ, some sealed with ceramic kourasani mortar and others with lead sheets. In these vases priests would store the offerings of the pilgrims, namely cereal, various fruits, liquid offerings or vases. Apart from the large pithoi, three smaller ones, used in the same way, were also found, as well as various vases such as amphorae, oinochoai, hydriae, jars, lekanes. All the vases were piled, after their content had been emptied, in the area of the main sanctuary. Among them a large skyphos is preeminent, its frieze decorated with an ivy and three relief busts on its base, from which we can discern the figures of Hades and Dionysus. The image of the findings in the eastern area is complemented by various iron tools (mattocks, sickles etc.) and an elegant spoon or ladle in the shape of a swan, a silver effigy of a a deer horn, as well as parts of the upper floor, bricks and clay.
Correspondingly, in the western area of the main sanctuary, 17 large pithoi were found, similar to the ones in the eastern area regarding size, position and use. However, they are not preserved intact: in most of them, the upper part was missing or they were fragmented. A remarkable finding are two large clay figurines of Persephone, the better preserved one depicting the goddess with a headscarf, decorated with a polos and holding a variety of fruits in her right hand. From the same area originate a clay leg, probably of a tripod, with a representation of Cerberus, various vases, but most deformed and in a process of verification, piles of carbonized fruits on the floors, lamps, loom weights, sealed lids of amphorae, and numerous tools, for carpentry, stone carving, digging, tools used to grain the offerings and millstones. Here too the items were found on various levels, which is another indication of the existence of a second floor. In addition, the vases, in combination to the extended damage on the walls, led to the conclusion that a large amount of sulfur was trapped in this room, which caused the most extended destruction.

The Crypt

Right below the central room of the main sanctuary opens an equally sized underground room, 3.25 m high, carved into the rock. It is constructed in a way so that the floor of the room above the ground is also the ceiling of the one below, which is supported by 15 poros arches, carved with extreme care and supported on pillars. A special aesthetic effect is created by the stones on the arches, which highlight the depth of the underground room. In addition, the dimensions and the way the arches are constructed have led archaeologist S. Dakaris to the presumption that these are part of a circle 4.30 m wide. No signs of a door have been found inside the Crypt. The dimensions, the location and the construction of the room date it to the Hellenistic Period, namely the same time of the sanctuary. Perhaps, it replaced the prehistoric cave of the ancient core of worship, which was considered the dark palace of the Underworld gods, Hades and Persephone.
The mobile findings include few shreds, an intact vase, few bones and the skeleton of an animal, which were offered as a sacrifice.

Church of St John the Baptist

In the main sanctuary of the Hellenistic Nekromanteion and on its ruins, the Convent of Hagios Ioannis or St John the Baptist of Likouresis was built, probably in the 16th century, also known as the Monastery of Thanesa. It operated up until 1958, when excavations on the hill were launched. It was surrounded by a precinct, that included the katholikon and the cells which were later demolished. The style of the katholikon is of the simple single-room timber-roof church. Inside, it is decorated with fragmented and partially preserved wall paintings from 1740, according to an inscription from the church’s ktetor or benefactor. For its upper part plenty of materials from the deserted ancient sanctuary were used in abundance, such as cornerstones and bricks.

Ottoman koulia

Near the katholikon, in the centre of the archaeological area of the Nekromanteion, in the western complex, built on the western side of the wall of the main sanctuary, at a point that overlooked the entire Fanari Valley, is the Ottoman koulia, namely the fort residence of the Ottoman feudal lord, which dates to the first half of the 19th century. In terms of architecture, it includes a rectangular two-storey building and the tower. The ground floor was used for storage and defence, as well as for stabling animals. Correspondingly, the first floor comprised a single room of a rectangular plan, the ondas, where the feudal lord and his family resided. A series of riffle slits on the wall enhanced the fort-like nature of the building. On the Fanari Valley many examples of fort residencies of the same period are preserved, one of them being the koulia of the Nekromanteion.
After exiting the main Hellenistic sanctuary, visitors enter the koulia and when they finish touring that area they are directed out of the archaeological site.

The purpose of drafting a short yet concise archaeological touring guide on the Nekromanteion of Acheron is twofold: its initial aim is to assist readers in getting to know all aspects of the archaological site; secondly it aims to ignite their interest so that they will visit the site and discover it with their own personal perspective, along with the valuable help of this guide. Also, besides the archaeological site of the Nekromanteion, visitors can tour the entire area of the Acheron valley. On the borderline between the world of the dead and the one of the living, visitors will recollect the description of the Underworld by Homer. They will also have, though, the possibility to witness various sites of ancient Epirus.

The topography of the land

To the northeast of the Preveza Region and after the imposing mountains of Souli, stretches a fertile valley, known as the Fanari Valley. To the east it is demarcated by
a range of low hills, part of the Souli Mountains, to the west and south it sinks into the Ionian Sea, and to the northeast it is the boundary of the Preveza Region, surpassing it as
it stretches to the Thesprotia Region. At about the centre of the area is the Nekromanteion, near the point where various streams pour into the river Acheron, which torrents in grandeur into the sea. Tradition has it that the name of the valley is due to a lamp (“fanari” in Greek) placed on the Splantza Bay by the Venetians, to guide the ships in the dark night. The entire region is cut off from its neighbours and segmented by the three rivers running through it: Acheron in the centre, and its two large tributaries, the Kokytos and the Pyriphlegethon (today Mavros and Vouvos) to the east and to the west correspondingly.
These tributaries are joined by other smaller ones, creating a complex river network within the valley, making it particularly fertile and suitable for agriculture. The Delta of the Acheron, which flows into the Fanari or Ammoudia Bay, gives the picture the final touch.

The topography of the area in ancient times was of course significantly different. However, there is plenty of information drawn from the literature which contributes to recomposing the picture. Homer is the first to claim in the Odyssey (10.487-543) that the entrance to the Underworld is near a small beach, green with poplar and willow trees, where the river Acheron is joined by Kokytos and Pyriphlegethon. Additionally (11.13 ff), he traces the spot in question beyond the Ocean, in the land of the Cimmerians. The resemblance of the description by Homer to the modern topography is impressive, as he distinctively refers to the three rivers with the names in which they were known throughout antiquity. Despite the detailed description, though, no verse in the epic is dedicated to the Acherousian Lake. Also, the passage on the land of Cimmerians led to confusion and discordance. This is
because the Cimmerians who inhabited the region of Scythia, were known to Greeks after the 7th century BC, when they started raiding the coastline of Asia Minor. On the other hand, the Cheimerians were a race that inhabited the Acheron region. If we replace the word Kimmeríōn with Chimeríōn, as had been suggested as early as the 3rd century by ancient grammarian Proteas of Zeugma, this verse is more safely attributed to the Fanari Valley.

But the second–though much shorter–passage is found in Herodotu’s Histories (5.92). Periander, tyrant of Corinth, sent delegates to the Nekromanteion of the Thesprotians, which is located on the river Acheron, to ask the soul of his wife Melissa where she had hidden a treasure.

After Herodotus, another historian, Thucydides, describes the topography of the land while narrating the docking at the port of Eleatis of the fleet of the Corinthians and their allies on the eve of the Battle of Syvota (432 BC), which is regarded as one of the main
reasons leading to the Peloponnesian War (1.46.3–1.47.1). In particular, the Corinthians and their allies, 150 ships in total, floated on Corfu waters on the side of Lefkas ready for battle. But then, for greater safety, they decided to dock to the port near the Cape Cheimerion in Thesprotia. In this area, called Eleatis, is the town of Ephyra, as well as the Acherousian Lake. The latter flows into the sea and is named after the river Acheron, which flows into the lake. Still on Thesprotian land and very nearby, there is another river, the Thyamis (Kalamas), which is the boundary between the region of Thesprotia and that of Kestrine. So it is in the port of Eleatis that the ships of the Corinthians and their allies cast anchor and they set camp nearby. On the other hand, the ships of the Corfiots docked in Syvota.

Later on, Pseudo-Scylax in the Periplus (30) of the Mediterranean coasts, namely a circumnavigation he performed, following the orders by Phillip II of Macedon, while describing the land of the Thesprotians refers to a port named Elea, into which flow the Acheron and the Acherousian Lake. He adds that the Acheron flows into the lake.

In the Roman imperial period and Strabo’s Rerum Geographicarum (7.7.5), the port is located at the edge of the land of the Cheimerians. On it is the river Acheron, which flows into the Acherousian Lake, along with several minor tributaries. Due to the many river waters, water in the bay is sweet and the port is called Glykys Limen, meaning Sweet
Harbour. Nearby there is one more river, Thyamis, as well as the town of Kichyros, the once Thesprotian Ephyra.

The topography of the Fanari Valley was also studied by Pausanias in his Description of Greece or Periegesis (1.17.5). In particular, he locates the Acherousian Lake and the
Acheron, as well as the Kokytos river near Kichyros. In addition, observing the resemblance of the morphology in the area he travelled in to the corresponding description by Homer, he assumes that the poet himself had visited the location, since that was the only way he could have given the names of the Thesprotian rivers to the ones in the Underworld.

It was at the port of the Fanari Bay or Ammoudia (Glykys Limen), which through time has been a safe mooring place for ships, that the fleet of Octavian rested for a while before the Battle of Actium, on their way from Italy. Several centuries later, in the 12th century AD, another fleet, that of Robert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Apulia and Calabria, found refuge at the Eleatis port, where they remained for an entire winter, while the army was aiming to conquer the mountain locations of Epirus.

The picture of the topography of the area, as it is outlined in the works of ancient Greek literature, is also confirmed by the similarites traced in the testimonies of later travelers,
particularly in the 19th century. But also, the modern picture, despite any natural geological transformations, is the most accurate witness of ancient sources and proves
that the Fanari area, with the river network, is still for the most part of the same distinctive geomorphology it had in ancient times.

Of course, albeit there are many similarities, some important differences have also been created through the centuries. Geological studies and observations, as well as comparative analysis of various sources and their comparison to today’s picture, have led to the conclusion that the ancient river bed would flow more to the east than it does today. So, the river would pass about 2.8 miles off the sanctuary before finally flowing into the Acherousian Lake. The lake was formed in the period between the 8th century and 433 BC. Initially, it was a shallow water gathering surrounded by a swamp. In historical times, the
lake covered a singificant part of the valley and got deeper. Since it received the Acheron river water on the northern side, in its adjoining west bank the extra water formed the
riverbed. That was also the point where the rivers Kokytos and Pyriphlegethon flowed into the Acheron, so that it would flow into the Ammoudia Bay, as is the case today. In Byzantine and modern times, though, the Acherousian Lake followed a reverse course, resulting in it turning again into various shallow swamps, which were finally drained
in the 1950s. Thus, the Acheron, with its slightly different riverbed, keeps receiving the inflow by the two large tributaries, Kokytos and Pyriphlegethon, and flows out into
the Ammoudia Bay, but without the Acherousian Lake inbetween. Finally, the Bay has also decreased and faces the risk of disappearing due to the rivers’ silt.

Therefore on the Fanari Valley, in the lower course of the Acheron and the southern end of the range of low hills demarcating it to the east, is the hill of Hagios Ioannis (St John), on which the convent of St John the Baptist and the Nekromanteion are located.

The Nekromanteion archaeological site

Historical review

Information from the literature, along with archaeological evidence, allow us to outline the trajectory of the sanctuary through history.

The hill seems to have been frequented by humans as early as the Late Bronze Age, as is evident by findings: three cist graves of children dating to the 14th-13th century BC, relics of walls, dry stone walls, Mycenaean shreds, a Mycenaean-type copper sword, as well as small items: arrowheads, blades, spindle whorls, etc. Of course, the above findings were probably from a small settlement at the top of the hill and are not associated with any worship.

However, from the more detailed description by Homer, along with the existing bordering Mycenaean Ephyra and the relevant settlement of Toryne near Parga, one can assume that necromancy in the area was already apparent in the Mycenaean Period. Its centre was probably, at first, the underground cave on the northeastern banks of the Acherousian Lake and near the confluence of Acheron with Kokytos, on the hill where later the Hellenistic sanctuary was built. However, overall, the Fanari Valley was regarded
as an intermediate location, transitioning from the world of the living to the world of the dead, and it was also under the jurisdiction of Hades, albeit above the ground.
Therefore, the living had to respect it and could visit it only for religious and ritual purposes.

On the Nekromanteion hill, the Archaic and Classical periods are represented by the discovery of a deposit, which was found on the southern foothill and contained fragments of vases and clay figurines of Persephone, dating from the mid-7th until the late-5th century BC. In fact, some of the figurines are particularly large, while others seem to have features typical of the Peloponnese workshops, a place with which Epirus had close relations. At the same location, the head of a marble figurine of Persephone was unearthed, dating to the 5th century BC, with the same features of austere style. Apart from the aforementioned findings, at the top of the hill only few fragments were found dating before the 4th century BC. Of course, due to flattening of the location to build the existing compound, the remains of earlier buildings disappeared.

All the above findings made archaeologist Sotiris Dakaris express the opinion that on the top of the Nekromanteion hill there was an Archaic sanctuary of Persephone. The sanctuary operated during the Classical Period as well. But in the Hellenistic Period,
aiming to serve the gradually increasing number of pilgrims, a decision was made to replace it with the larger sanctuary that is today at the site.

Thus, the first building phase of the Hellenistic Nekromanteion is the late 4th-early 3rd century BC. It included the polygonal precinct, the main sanctuary with its hallways and some rooms serving the passing pilgrims during their short staying, as was mandated by
the etiquette. In the same period, right under the Room of the Spectrums, the underground cave was chiseled in the rock, which was perhaps the core of the initial
worship, while later it accomodated the dark palace of Hades and Persephone.

The second building phase is traced to the late 3rd-early 2nd century BC. During this phase, to the west of the initial building a compound was added with rooms and storerooms around a square central patio. These spaces were used for the staying of priests and the large number of pilgrims, before the latter entered the sanctuary and started preparations, as well as to store the numerous offerings. The expansion was considered
a good idea because of the increasing numbers of pilgrims and offerings, which also meant the increase of the number of priests. The Nekromanteion maintained the same form until 167 BC, when it was set on fire and completely destroyed by the Romans. The piles of cereal which were stored within fed the fire, while the high temperatures caused the calcification of parts of the wall surface and the melting of the bricks, further intensifying
the destruction.

In the 1st century BC, when the Romans settled on the Acheron Valley, a part of the western building compound was repaired and inhabited, as is evidenced by the masonry
and the relevant findings, such as loom-weights, shreds of various vases, compass lids and many Roman roof tiles with imprints. However, the site lost its significance as a place
of worship and was used exclusively as a private residence area. When the Romans themselves left the top of the hill it was backfilled and disappeared for centuries, along with the century-old tradition and the secrets of necromancy. It seems, though, that the area never lost its religious significance, at least not in the residents’ minds. As is often
the case with holy grounds, with pagan sanctuaries being replaced by Christian churches, here too in the 16th century AD, right atop of the Hellenistic Nekromanteion, the church
of Hagios Ioannis or St John the Baptist was built.

Research background – Modern works of site enhancement

The hill of the sanctuary was investigated by archaeology professor S. Dakaris, under the auspices of the Archaeological Society and the Ioannina University, in two periods: 1958-1964 and 1976-1977. Then, in 2011-2015 another project was implemented, namely “Enhancement of the Archaeological Sites of Nekromanteion and Ephyra”, part of the Operational Programme “Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship” of the NSRF, initially by the 13th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities and then by the newly established Ephorate of Antiquities of Preveza. The aim of this project was to connect the two bordering and jointly declared archaeological sites, that of Ephyra and that of the Nekromanteion, which cover a period from the Prehistoric to the Post-Byzantine period.

More precisely, at the ancient sanctuary, which was already open to visitors, the already existing infrastructures were extended and modernized (fencing, installing a metal gate and fire protection system, expanding the water supply and irrigation networks and the electricity grid, creating a new parking lot, etc.). There was regular deforestation and careful cleaning, fieldwork was carried out to conserve and protect the monuments, new spaces were created along with new paths for nature lovers, so that visitors will be able to view the Nekromanteion from all sides before moving on to the Ephyra hill. In addition, the two positions have been made accessible and easy to visit by people with disabilities. Finally, restoration and reuse of the Ottoman residence koulia is of high significance among the works in the past years.

In conclusion and after the works were completed, the Nekromanteion hill offers visitors the opportunity to wander safely and easily on a route that covers initially the sanctuary, to be informed by the signs, to visit the koulia exhibition area and then to reach, through a wonderful path in the forest, the Mycenaean Ephyra.

The evidence from the literature

Ancient Greeks had developed a philosophy on the Underworld, its structure, access to it, transition and the life of the dead there, the survival of the soul and its features, and mainly the communication between the dead and the living. In the context of this philosophy, they believed that caves, deep canyons, underground river springs and all opennings that led from the surface deep down the earth were an entrance to the underworld. Thus the fact that on the Fanari Valley there were three rivers -Acheron and its two tributaries, Kokytos and Pyriphlegethon well as the Acherousian lake, the forests with poplar and willow trees -the sacred plants of Persephone- and mainly the underground cave on the hill of Hagios Ioannis, where finally the Nekromanteion was built, led to the belief that the area was one of the entrances to the Underworld, as is
attested by references in the literature.

The place names “Acheron” and “Acherousian”, first appearing in the work of Homer in the 8th century BC, remain in use up until the historical work by John Kantakouzenos in the 14th century, following a unique trajectory, almost uninterruptedly, through the entire
ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine literature. Apart from its vast time range, it is worth refering to the great variety of texts in which the two names are traced, since they represent overall the literature genres in each period. Thus, the Acheron and the Acherousian Lake, sometimes on their own and sometimes along with Hades, Pluto and
Persephone and her grove, and more frequently along with Kokytos and Pyriphlegethon and the Styx, are found in works such as epics, histories, philosophies, geographies,
travelers’ works, theological (both from Classical Antiquity as well as Judaic or Christian), astronomical, medical, rhetoric, ecclesiastical (where mainly they judge the views
of the great philosophers of Classical Antiquity), grammars (with relative comments and examples from classical works and mainly Homer), poems (featuring representative works
of lyrical, pastoral and dramatic poetry), mythologies, the great dictionaries of the Byzantine Period, in collections of myths, oracles, proverbs, the lives of philosophers etc., in comments on texts from the Classical Antiquity and finally in a variety of epigrams.

The use and meaning of the two place names varies, depending on the literary genre and the author. Overall, though, and throughout their route in litterary production across the centuries, they are encountered with specific meanings. In particular, the Acheron is often used as a synonym of death or the Underworld, and so is the crossing of the river as well as of the Ahcerousian Lake. Even contact with the Acherousian water means death, as we see in a variety of texts. In many texts, the river and the lake are considered points of junction between the world of the living and the world of the dead. In particular, the details of the transition of the souls from the Earth to the Underworld are included. A description of the Underworld is also included, with its topography, structure, operation, the way of judgment of the dead, while various mythical personalities or events are mentioned regularly, such as the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, the soul of Achiles, Hercules, all associated to Hades. Of course, in written sources the Acheron River and the Acherousian lake are placed in the “dark kingdom” and not in Thesprotia. However, the description of their topography is usually identified to the image of the Fanari Valley, with the three
rivers joining and flowing into the lake, with the same place names being used. There are, though, extracts, mainly from texts on subjects relating to death or the creation of the
world, where the lake and the river are simply referred to as places in Hades.

Certain authors define with clarity and precision the place of the Acheron and the Acherousian in Thesprotia, sometimes in direct relation to Hades and sometimes not.
Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica, says that the Acheron River and the Acherousian Lake were located in the Megara colony of Heracleia in the Pontus.
In this area is the entrance to the Underworld and from there Hercules descended to find
Cerberus. In fact, the Acheron was crossed by the Argonauts themselves. An Acheron river
was thought to flow into the Alfeios river in the Pelloponese, while another Acheron
was found in Hermione of Argolis, where there was another Nekromanteion. The
Acherousian lake, except its known location in Thesprotia, is also found in Cyme, Sicily, where there was an entrance to Hades. Finally, according to another view, both the Acheron and the Acherousian, as well as the entrance to the Underworld should be
looked for in Egypt.

During the Roman and Byzantine Period, the usage and meaning of the two place names are significantly altered. Initially, there is an effort to analyze them both in linguistic as
well as grammatical terms. In the great dictionaries of the Byzantine Period, they are discussed from various aspects, e.g. etymology, geographical location, mythological context and references in classic writers. Finally, in many texts, the Acheron is regarded as the purgatory, namely the place where sinners were tortured.

In conclusion, the effort to trace the route and significance of the two place names in literature of all these centuries does not lead to additional information on the history or operation of the Nekromanteion. However, the number and variety of references confirm
the importance of the area, as the most ancient, most significant and most known entrance to Hades, as well as the influence it had over time.